Carpets as Art

Anthony Foster

Even among art-conscious cognoscenti, carpets are all too often overlooked or underappreciated. With the exception of connoisseurs, few people realize the art-historic significance of exceptional hand-knotted and naturally-dyed wool or silk carpets. Most fail to understand the aesthetic contribution and artistic legitimacy that a truly fine carpet lends to a contemporary interior decoration. Depending upon the social-cultural context in which they were woven, carpets can generally be evaluated and appreciated by criteria ranging from primitive to fine and abstract art. Examples of great merit are recognized within all these categories. From simple tribal or village weavings to those produced by little-known designers and master weavers of the Middle, Far Eastern and European Imperial courts, carpets are without question a crucial complement to the appreciation of fine, decorative, primitive and abstract works of art. During the Renaissance and previously, extraordinary and highly-coveted examples were woven throughout the Middle East, Central Asia and China, as well as through numerous initiatives sponsored by courts and nobles throughout Central and Western Europe, principally but not exclusively in Spain, France and the United Kingdom. Superlative masterpieces, dating from ancient times through the ‘classical’ period, and up to the late 19th century revival, are to be found in both private collections and museum inventories. Apart from the reputedly large holdings of Oriental carpets possessed by some of the European courts predating the 19th century – including those of Henry VIII, the Medici and Hapsburgs – it was from the second half of the 19th century that academics, collectors, and visionary entrepreneurs began to study and gather singular examples. Many were subsequently donated to existing and newly-founded museums. Apart from the more academic devotees, or art historians equipped with the appropriate research tools for classifying and cataloging carpets, many prominent captains of industry, including some of the so-called ‘Robber Barons’ in late 19th century America, avidly sought out carpet specimens of exceptional quality and art historic significance¹. In the early 20th century there were also many collectors with more of an art focus, with names like McMullan, Myers, and Ballard amassing some of the great eclectic collections. The Textile Museum, established in 1925 in Washington, D.C. by George Hewett Myers², is a stellar example of the achievement of a visionary connoisseur and boasts one of the most distinguished research collections in the world. In addition to the numerous eclectic and superlative private collections scattered over the globe, many of the world’s most prestigious museums have conspicuous holdings of noteworthy Oriental and European carpets, frequently deriving from the remarkable private collections of the past. Exceptional pre-19th century examples can often still be found in the international marketplace and museum-quality specimens from the classical period are as coveted as ever. Recently some major new heavyweight players have appeared on the international art market and have garnered significant collections, not least among them the Middle Eastern Emirates museums, flush with petro dollars. The June 2013 auction of an important collection of rare 16th and 17th century ‘classical’ period carpets at Sotheby’s New York clearly demonstrates a timely paradigm shift in liquid terms of just how much carpets have come to be appreciated. De-acquisitioned from the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., the group of 25 rare carpets included a superb 17th-century ‘vase technique’ carpet of distinguished provenance from the Persian city of Kerman that sold for an astonishing $33,765,000.00, eclipsing the previous record of $9.6 million paid in London for another equally resplendent contemporary example, also from Kerman. All the Corcoran carpets were sold, earning the auctioneer a prestigious award for a perfect sale. Equally astonishing, in my opinion, was the institution’s decision to relinquish such a magnificent and undoubtedly irreplaceable collection of masterpieces. To further add to the museum’s debacle, again in my opinion, another 15 pieces were dispersed, again at auction, in 2009, bringing the total to 40. A huge and significant collection by anyone’s standard. Now to be replaced by contemporary art!

1-The infamous financier Charles Yerkes is credited with being the first modern to establish an unprecedented collection of carpets. Although it is said to have been inspired not by passion, but rather by the desire to possess “a collection without parallel, one that anyone would have to envy” his collection is reputed to have been pivotal to the subsequent refinement in the tastes of his contemporaries (Farnham 1998, p. 77).

2-Myers was not alone in establishing a formidable collection of great carpet art. James F. Ballard bequeathed 126 carpets to the Metropolitan 24 25 Museum of Art in New York in 1922 and also gave a generous collection to the Saint Louis Museum of Art in Missouri. McMullan left carpets dispersed throughout museums in America, principally the Metropolitan Museum in New York. His collections favored the less appreciated village and tribal weavings.

Clearly it would be impossible in such a short essay to condense the vast available literature regarding every conceivable aspect of the origins, history and manufacture of hand-woven carpets. My own modest contribution here is intended simply to glance at a few aspects of this rich story which I feel may be of particular interest to the non-expert reader and also of some pertinence to the exemplars comprised within the decorative scheme of the villa. In view of the immense interest generated during the last 30 years by gifted international dealers, collectors, and scholars, the many types, origins, techniques, and iconography of carpets are being studied and documented as never before. It is said that the body of information published over this period exceeds that of the previous 100 or more years³. I personally believe, among other things, that the opening of the borders to the former Soviet Republics of the Caucasus in the late 1980s, and the subsequent flood of rare and exquisite village and town carpets that were previously a rarity, along with new types of rugs and textiles that were completely unknown in the West, played an important role in stimulating not only the interest of dealers and collectors but also the general desire for more investigation and documentation on the part of academics and institutions⁴. A similar phenomenon occurred shortly afterwards in the former Soviet Central Asian Republics. In the case of the Caucasus, for several years beginning around 1990 an astonishing quantity of prized examples of Caucasian carpets filtered through the trade in Istanbul, a unique and exhilarating period that I personally experienced firsthand.

3-In a survey conducted by Azadi, the number of known books published about Oriental Carpets between 1877 and 1977 was 600. Between 1977 and 2015 a further 6,000 appeared.

4-Zakatala Rugs and Kaitag embroideries from the North Caucasus being two examples.

Although any carpet-hunting trip to the Middle Eastern bazaars, even before or after, has always been an exhilarating experience, that particular time continues to elicit the authentic sense of exotic treasure hunting – sifting through the nooks and crannies of the Grand Bazaar and the nearby Sultanahmet – accompanied by a certain bittersweet melancholy for a fleeting and treasured moment in time. Interest in fine carpets appeared to have waned in the period between the early 19th century and the late 1970s. At that juncture a substantial number of gifted and highly-informed dealers emerged in Europe and America, spawning a new generation of enthusiastic collectors and institutions. Some of the leading contemporary collections were formed during that time. Unfortunately at present, in terms of interior décor at least, there is a greater interest in carpets with abstract modern designs that are, obviously, virtually impossible to find in antique carpets. For this reason a vast new industry has developed which has overshadowed the intense interest in antique carpets of just a few years ago. There are, however, pockets of connoisseurs and gallery-owners worldwide who continue to seek out the appetizing specimens that occasionally surface for the public. Although a mere shadow of their former glory, the international auction houses still offer worthwhile material to the market place. At the same time a fairly lively – although subdued in comparison to the recent past – dealer and internet activity continues to lumber along in anticipation of an eventual resurgence in antique carpets.

Historical Context

It is an undisputed fact that carpets have been woven since time immemorial, Egypt being a possible source of origin. The making and use of carpets was very much a function of necessity, and a practical use of the materials readily available to the nomadic tribal groups. Apart from the everyday utilitarian function of carpets they filled an important role in a spiritual sense. The motifs often had the nature of talismans and, whether used on a daily basis or stored as heirlooms for use on special ceremonial occasions, carpets played an extremely significant role in the socio-cultural traditions inherent to each tribal group. The oldest complete and full-scale woolen pile carpet emerged from the Siberian tundra tomb of a Scythian prince at Pazyryk in 1949. Excavated by Sergej Rudenko and dated to the 5th century BC, it demonstrates an exemplary level of technical and artistic achievement considering its great age.

Antiquity

Documented analysis of literary texts and vase painting in the archaic period indicates the ubiquitous nature of weaving looms and woven textiles in quotidian reality and mythological narrative in pre-classical Greece. Both the Iliad and the Odyssey repeatedly make reference to weaving’s and looms as well as carpets. Mention is also made in Ovid’s Metamorphosis from the later Roman period. A logical conclusion from these discoveries, and many others that have provided further evidence of hand-woven and knotted textiles throughout the ages, is of an ancient and developed discipline that engaged a wide range of different artificers belonging 12 13 to nomadic tribes and to sedentary groups and villages in the Orient as well as in quotidian ancient Greece and Rome. Nevertheless, without more substantiated information there can only be speculation about just how far back carpet weaving goes and who were the initiators. Current evidence suggests that cut-pile, looped knotted carpets were being woven in Egypt as long ago as 2000 BC. However, from the time of the Pazryk era up until the 13th-14th century AD only fragmentary samples of carpets have survived, which continue to inspire conjecture. Considerable attention is devoted to the Central Asian tribes, which have a particularly developed and sophisticated knowledge of carpet weaving, despite their primitive and often barbaric lifestyle. There is speculation that their migrations westward brought carpet weaving to Persia and Turkey. At the present time there are some heavyweight scholars and researchers greatly interested in uncovering more about the pre-Turkic tribes that inhabited the area of Turkmenistan and the nearby Tarim basin in Central Asia, where unexplained fragments have been discovered. Nevertheless, to date there is only conjecture as to when and where carpet weaving developed, Central Asia being just one of several focal points.

Four distinctive groups to distinguish carpet making origins

The world of carpets is a subject so vast that for those who, although curious, are unfamiliar with it, it often seems difficult to get a clear grasp. One extremely practical recent method of acquiring a better understanding of carpets organizes them into 4 distinctive groups according to the environment in which they were made⁵: nomadic and sedentary tribes; village or home-based craft industry; carpets made in towns or cities and, finally, the carpet production of the Imperial Islamic courts. Each group represents a different level of technical expertise and sophistication of materials and designs, and its production is categorized accordingly in terms of artworks. The carpets of the tribal groups, despite frequently being of a high technical level, feature less complex design repertoires and while primitive are no less refined. The designs represent an important part of the traditions of the group and, being woven from memory, are handed down from generation to generation. Examples from this group can qualify as art of great significance or “high art” as assessed by Thompson⁶. Carpets from the villages and home craft enterprise are more commercial in nature and reflect the demand of the marketplace while also being influenced by royal court models, albeit of an inferior level of quality. The gathering, combing, spinning and dying of the wool is usually carried out by the members of the family. Traditional local designs are used and the carpets themselves are frequently part of the home furnishing. The carpets made in cities and towns are more sophisticated and are often previously drawn by specialists on a cartoon so that the weavers can copy the pattern precisely. Local wool specialists and dying experts are employed to prepare the materials and mount the looms. In the second half of the 19th century the styles and sizes of carpets produced for export were influenced and modified to meet the market demand being satisfied by Western companies operating in the Orient. Financing came from entrepreneurs and commercial firms engaged in the manufacture and distribution of the carpets, most often internationally. This is the area of production that met with such great success at the end of the 19th century and now again at the end of the 20th. The carpets of the Imperial courts were the crowning glory of the development of carpet-weaving. In the case of the Ottoman royal court, carpets were designed and produced in the nakkash-hane, or royal ateliers, and while reflecting the contemporary vogue in styling, they contain elements of tribal origins and traditions. Massive expenditure was deployed to ensure achieving the standard consonant with a royal manufacture. Ateliers were established exclusively for the design and drawing of the motifs and patterns. The most gifted artists were recruited, frequently prisoners of war from conquered or looted rival dynasties. Technically-advanced looms were constructed, often of imposing dimensions. The most exquisite materials were procured and master dyers were employed in obtaining the colors specified by the designers in the cartoon models. While tribal and village weavers were traditionally female, the royal court artisans and weavers were highly trained and experienced and exclusively male. The products of the 15th, 16th, and 17th century Islamic Imperial courts are nowadays considered to be works of art of the highest distinction, as attested by the above-mentioned recent auction prices. The achievement of the designers and weavers of the royal courts has never been surpassed, except perhaps in the fineness of weave in certain 19th and 20th century silk rugs produced in Hereke, in Turkey.

5- See Thompson 1983.

6- Ibid.

The Rise of the Islamic Imperial Courts

The European Renaissance was initiated in the 14th century by the humanist movement in Italy with its high regard for classical Greek and Latin culture and subsequently spread to the rest of Europe. Although well-documented, less attention is given to the emergence of a similar blossoming of cultural and artistic development in the Islamic world, more or less corresponding to the same time period⁷. What is known factually of these courts is that, beginning in the 14thcentury, the conquest and expansion by localized military tribal groups precipitated the historical ascent of sophisticated imperial ‘courts’ whose monarchs favored and patronized the development of specialized ‘ateliers’ for the manufacture of highly distinguished artworks and the diffusion of the image of monarchy and power. Most of these groups were steppe nomads from Central Asia in their western migrations of conquest that followed in the footsteps of the Mongol hordes of a century or more before. The ateliers flourished – producing exceptionally exquisite objects of magnificent dexterity and prestige, with carpet manufacture being singled out for some of the most lavish royal patronage. Massive expenditure was allocated, often conspicuously in the interest of court rivalry and ceremonial extravaganza⁸.

7- Not to be confused with the Islamic Golden Age of the 8th Century Abbasid Dynasty. Up until the ravages of the Mongols in the 13th century Bagdad and Samarrá were the cultural capitals of the world of Islam. As great patrons of the arts they established the House of Wisdom, a library and institute for the translation of the ancient and contemporary texts available. Without the contribution of Arabic and Hebrew translations of the original texts, the literary, scientific, and philosophic masterpieces of antiquity would be lost to us now.

8- The manufacture of expressly ostentatious art objects as means of visual propaganda was not solely an Oriental invention and was mirrored by the use of tapestries for an equally mesmerizing effect by the contemporary European courts and nobility (see Campbell 2002).

Persian Royal Court Carpets

Design repertoire in Persian court carpets is unquestionably linked to Chinese influence through the opening of trade and communication routes by the Mongols by way of the Silk Road in the 13th century. The Timurids had diplomatic ties with China by the early 15th century, and in many Persian cities, such as Tabriz and Shiraz, Timurid schools of painting were established. The school of Herat, however, was the most prestigious ¹⁷, with even the names of some of the most gifted artists being documented. The Chinese influence was disseminated while being transformed into local artistic vocabularies. Both animal and floral design renditions can be seen as having Chinese precursors, diffused within the Persian art repertoire through the influences of the Timurid period. Textiles were not the only inspiration for Persian carpet designs, and motifs were also extracted from Chinese porcelain and silver. However Timurid painting, in the form of illustrated manuscripts, seems to have been the single most formidable influence on the designs of court-level carpet production¹⁸. The art of the Timurids was hugely influential on Persian civilization, especially in terms of illuminated manuscripts and miniatures, an area in which Persian art excelled and that is regarded as its paramount achievement. Carpet designs were thus directly influenced by the manuscript covers and in many instances carpets are reproduced in the illuminations contained in the book, offering a valuable benchmark for the contemporary styles when it is possible to discern the patterns. Through the absorbing of these influences, a distinctive Persian style evolved with naturalistically drawn floral and animal designs. Despite the immensity of stylistic range in the Persian design repertoire, the medallion and quadrant (or spandrel) infinite repeat format became, then as now, the most frequently utilized design composition, directly influenced by the manuscript covers. After the fall of the Timurids, the Safavid Shahs, principally Tahmasp and Abbas – who were both reputed to be personally involved – engaged in the development of the royal ateliers that functioned at different times in Tabriz, Isfahan, Kashan, Herat and Kirman, among others. These centers of production are still operative today, and the modern weavings unquestionably still reflect the styles and designs developed in the 15th and 16th centuries. Persia, like Turkey, is flush with different regions of carpet production, each with its distinctive type of design, color palette and technical variants. With rare exceptions, most can be identified by an experienced eye. In the scholarly world of today’s carpet specialist the close examination of the technical features of a carpet is of major importance and enables precise identification. India does not have a traditional carpet weaving culture being documented. . After the fall of the Timurids, the Safavid Shahs, principally Tahmasp and Abbas – who were both reputed to be personally involved – engaged in the development of the royal ateliers that functioned at different times in Tabriz, Isfahan, Kashan, Herat and Kirman, among others. These centers of production are still operative today, and the modern weavings unquestionably still reflect the styles and designs developed in the 15th and 16th centuries. Persia, like Turkey, is flush with different regions of carpet production, each with its distinctive type of design, color palette and technical variants. With rare exceptions, most can be identified by an experienced eye. In the scholarly world of today’s carpet specialist the close examination of the technical features of a carpet is of major importance and enables precise identification.

17- See Day 1999.

18- See Day 1989.

Royal Court Carpets from Mughal India

India does not have a traditional carpet weaving culture. The first carpets woven in India were made by weavers imported from Persia, often captured as war booty. For this reason, in the 16th century the carpets of the Mughal royal court were first unquestionably influenced by Persian techniques and designs. In the early 17th century there emerged a distinctive style developed by local court artists based on indigenous Indian floral iconography and the influence of engravings from European herbals¹⁹. Despite originating from Central Asian Timurid stock, the Mughal dynasty and court was essentially Persian in character and in the 16th century carpets reflected the Persian style. Consequently, even a trained eye can have difficulty in identifying the distinct origins of the similarly-designed carpets from these two courts during the transition period. However, once the shift away from Persian influences was complete, the distinctive fashion in which the Indian draftsmen reproduced the illusion of flowers had become unmistakable. Ironically, the carpets produced by Indian craftsman at the height of Mughal ascendancy are now regarded as the most technically sophisticated carpets ever woven²⁰. Carpet production decreased in India in the 18th century but was subsequently revived by the British in the 19th, many of the carpets then being produced in prisons, and nowadays referred to as “jail carpets”.

19- See Walker 1998.

20- Ibid.

Egyptian Mamluk Carpets

The enigmatic and mysterious carpets of the 15th and 16th century Mamluk Empire in Cairo, and the so called “para-Mamluks” reputed to have been woven in Damascus, have yet to be fully understood in terms of the place of their manufacture or the inspiration for their designs. Speculation is rampant, with some scholars postulating a source of manufacture in Spain or possibly even Turkey. What is unquestionable however, is the mathematical demeanor and visual radiance of a Mamluk carpet. Although enhanced by the sumptuousness and brilliance of the wool, a limited color palette was employed, the older carpets having only 5 colors while later versions employed only 3 colors, somewhat rare in the Orient. Distinctive also in a technical sense, the Mamluk carpets were woven with an asymmetrical knot and S spun wool threads, rather than the more ubiquitous Z spun. Mamluk carpets were very popular in Western inventories and many were exported to and subsequently found in Italy. The carpets of the Mamluks project an elegant majesty that is truly astonishing to the observer.

China

Although there are myriad documentary references and numerous fragments going back millennia, there is no certainty as to when carpets were first made in China, the tradition possibly being imported from Central Asia. The fact that there is very little literature in the West about Chinese carpets tends to generate a certain prejudice against them. Chinese carpets are woven exclusively using an asymmetric Persian knot and, although the wool is of a very high quality and often imported from Mongolia, the weave is very coarse and unsophisticated, and the color palette appears to be limited, with a seemingly ubiquitous absence of red. On the contrary, red was generously used but seems to have been mordanted in such a way that subsequently oxidization paled the brilliance of the reds into different shades of pastel colors, losing its original intensity. Study of surviving examples of classical period Chinese carpets reveals the now hard to distinguish subtlety of the juxtapositioning of the multi-tone colors and the dexterity in nuance of the carpet designers and weavers. Designs are simplistic and often austere in composition. One reason perhaps for the cultural divide in appreciating and under - 18 19 standing Chinese carpets is an unmistakable Zen-like quality intrinsic to the message portrayed in the renditions. Carpet-weaving does not appear to have been as pervasive and integrated into the culture as in the Middle East. Regardless of when or from where the discipline arrived, the carpet designs are typically Chinese in nature. Dragons, clouds, the yin-yang symbol, pomegranates, the lotus and peony, as well as Taoist and Buddhist religious symbolism. Many of the classical period carpets of China feature renditions of mythical beasts with an inherent symbolism. Since the 13th century carpets have been depicted in paintings and sometimes appear in the genre referred to as “ancestor portraits”. Carpets seem to have been made in China since the Han dynasty, 25 – 220 AD, although exquisitely-made carpets from the Ming (1368–1644) period appear to be the earliest surviving complete examples. There are numerous documentary references and a generous supply of fragments going back millennia, however there is no certainty as to when exactly carpets were first made in China. Carpet production in China developed in the western areas of Ningxia, Gansu, and Xinjiang and the carpets were functionally utilitarian despite employing designs of a spiritual nature. As in most carpet-weaving cultures coveted examples were used in ceremony and infused with symbols pertaining to benevolence and harmony. Fertility, the warding off of evil spirits, and the afterlife were themes of major importance within the context of human tradition and continuity, and ubiquitous throughout all the weaving areas covered in the context of this brief survey.

Spain

The city of Cordova was established as the capital of Islamic Spain in 756 AD. Its size and elegance is said to have been rivalled only by Constantinople in the East. The first Western European carpet-weaving industry was established in Chinchilla by the Moors and there are 12th-century documents with references to carpet weaving indicating an already well-established level of development. In the 15th century carpets and silks were imported from the Middle East, and Spanish carpets were greatly influenced by Turkish models. The earlier Hispano-Moresque carpets bear designs that reflect the oriental nature, while the later 15th and 16th century carpets known as Mudejar combine Christian and Islamic iconography. The largest body of extant Spanish carpets dating to before the 16th century are referred to as “Admiral” carpets, woven in Letur, and feature designs with heraldic emblems and coats of arms. They were ostensibly made for the families of famous galleon admirals in view of their elevated status within Spanish society. The main feature was shields set within the carpets’ geometrically decorated field of floral and animal forms. Borders often bore a form of Kufic, or stylized Islamic script. In the 16th and 17th century now-famous carpets were woven in Alcaraz and employed a single looped knot, unique to Spanish carpets. Designs mimicked the patterns of contemporary silks. In the 18th century, carpet production was moved to Cuenca in central Spain where a Turkish, or symmetrical, knot was used. Peasant rugs were made in the region of Alpujarras, in Granada, and used as covers for beds and carriages and often sewn together as spreads. The pile was raised to a loop creating a distinctive coarse texture. The designs often depicted pomegranates, the emblem of Granada, as well as the tree of life and zoomorphic renderings including lions.

Carpets in Royal Collections

Over time the design repertoire of the Islamic royal court slowly filtered down through the diverse levels of the region’s social strata, from towns and villages to tribes and nomadic groups, all the while being modified and adapted to local interpretations and the technical limitations of the weavers. In their myriad and diverse stylized or corrupted forms, many Oriental and subsequently European woven carpet designs are direct descendants of the Islamic Imperial court manufactories of the Middle East during the period of the cultural and artistic renaissance. Apart from the ceremonial and quotidian use within the context of the courts’ internal protocol, the carpets of the royal Islamic courts were often given as precious diplomatic gifts, or even commissioned by foreign kings or aristocrats, and some have come down to us today in the royal collections or museums of many European countries. Regardless of the jostling rivalry between the Islamic courts, gifts were often exchanged between competing dynasties in the interests of diplomacy and prestige. For example, in the royal depositories of the Topkapi Seray in Istanbul there are thirty or more examples of a rare type of carpet belonging to a group now collectively referred to as the “Salting Carpets”²¹. Although the epithet is misleading, the age and origin has until recently been the subject of great speculation and often conspicuous faux pas by otherwise gifted and authoritative academics. Current scholarship, supported by dye and metal analysis in addition to inherent iconographic evidence, gives substantive weight to the hypothesis of a 16th century Persian Imperial court manufacture, and most likely of a gift from the Persian Shah, possibly Tahmasp (reigned 1524–76), to the Ottoman Sultan²². There is speculation that some examples believed to have been part of the Topkapi collection were somehow dispersed during the political upheaval in the late 19th century during the decline of Ottoman power. They form a body of their own and are known to be in important museum and private collections. Occasionally an example surfaces on the international auction market.

21- Over 80 in number worldwide, these carpets were named after the English connoisseur and collector George Salting with reference to a carpet that he bequeathed to the Victoria and Albert museum in London.

22- See Oriental 1999.

Poland

The Polish monarchy was the fortunate recipient of a rare type of Persian renaissance carpet, until recently mistakenly believed to have been manufactured in Cracow. The so-called “Polonaise” carpets, a misnomer, are exquisitely-woven silk carpets that incorporate gold and silver brocading in large areas throughout the field adding a novel element of majesty and sumptuousness. Whether commissioned, obtained as war booty, or given as diplomatic gifts by the Safivid court of Shah Abbas I, some bore the Polish royal coat of arms, no insignificant reason for the confusion as to their origin. Furthermore, large numbers of carpets are listed in Polish customs entries during the first half of the 17th century. Equally prolific are documents pertaining to the large numbers of carpets imported into neighboring Hungary during the same period. Many Turkish carpets were exported to Romania between the 15th and 17th centuries. Some were subsequently donated to Transylvanian churches, leaving a valuable source of historical documentation and outstanding examples of the carpet-weaving traditions of western Turkey during this time frame. The so called “Transylvanian” carpets were principally of western Anatolian manufacture and woven with columns or either a double or single directional niche, or prayer format. They have been preserved and displayed in large numbers in the Gothic Saxon Protestant church-citadels that were built by German colonists in Romania. Ostensibly invited for economic and defensive reasons, they transformed the Baroque Catholic character of the churches to suit their own more modest aesthetic²³. Although seemingly ironic, there appeared to be no inhibition on the fashion for displaying ‘Islamic’ iconography in a Christian church, which also mirrored the Anatolian custom of bequeathing carpets to local mosques ²⁴. The largest collections are housed in the Black Church in Brasov and the Brukenthal Museum in Sibiu. Some otherwise unknown types of Renaissance period Turkish carpets are among the exquisite examples that are prominently displayed throughout the textured contours of the marble and wood Gothic churches.

23- Late medieval Romania was not the most auspicious place to be. The previous century’s Mongol invasions in the nearby East had shaken European nerves considerably and the rise of the nearby Ottomans must have greatly alarmed the inhabitants of Romania. Their fears were soon to materialize with the Ottoman campaigns of European expansion.

24- Of all the carpet-producing regions of Islam, Turkey has been the fortuitous steward of the largest body of examples from its carpet weaving heritage. Throughout the centuries the pious tradition of donating carpets and kilims to local mosques has left today’s Turkish museums and deposits flush with unique examples, some going back to the 13th century, that reveal at least a small portion of the great mystery of the apparently ancient Anatolian weaving tradition.

Italy

Venice was the dominating Mediterranean trade power for centuries, importing examples of carpets from Turkey which have now been identified in paintings by important Renaissance masters²⁵. Carpets entering Venetian ports were highly prized by the Italian aristocracy and have been found in great numbers throughout Italy. Many also were dispersed throughout Europe by the Venetian merchants through their highly developed commercial links. The port of Ancona, midway up the Adriatic towards Venice, was an immensely important trade center, also known to have been a destination point for western Anatolian carpet imports. Carpets of major art historic importance are currently housed in leading Italian museums and in private collections. Portugal, the Netherlands and England also played important roles in the diffusion of carpets from the Orient to Europe. Carpet studies have been enhanced by the analysis of paintings by recognized Italian and Flemish masters who included contemporary carpets in their compositions. The works of Lorenzo Lotto, Giovanni Bellini, Hans Holbein, Crivelli, Ghirlandaio, and Hans Memling, among others, highlighted diverse exemplars portrayed in their canvases. Their names have lent themselves to distinctive Renaissance period carpet types that have come to be associated with them in carpet literature. When, in carpet aficionado circles, one refers to a “Lotto” or “Holbein” carpet, or any of the above-mentioned names, there is immediate recognition. Thanks to the inclusion of carpets in these masters’ works, scholars are able to date the associated carpets with relative accuracy, thus helping to form a genealogy of types and their corresponding design evolution.

25- Genoese merchants were in intense competition with the Venetians, having been granted trading rites with the rising Ottoman Empire as early as 1352, a half century before Venice.

Carpets and Color

Apart from the creative design repertories and the technical mastery of weaving, an extremely high degree of appreciation has been attributed to the Orientals’ mastery of color in their carpets. A famous and often-quoted aphorism has been attributed to the great 19th-century Impressionist master Paul Gauguin that reads: “Oh, you painters that search for a technique for color; look to the Orientals and their carpets … there you will find all knowledge!” Gauguin, Vincent Van Gogh, Henri Matisse, Pierre Bonnard and André Derain²⁶ are all today recognized as magnificent colorists: they were all reputed to have been influenced by the mastery of color in Oriental carpets, which they not only admired but frequently collected. Our own experience of color is with its physical presence on a daily basis, often subconsciously. However, other than the ubiquitous natural color of nature’s and the environment’s making - earth, trees, flowers, sea and sky most of the colors that we see are of a modern, artificial and commercial type. Even in the creation of modern artworks, we seldom if ever see rich saturated natural color that permeates a surface or fabric. Instead there is a profusion of industrially-produced pigment that is more often than not striking in its emptiness of depth or radiance. Of course, this is a generalization: there are exceptions. It is, however, hard to imagine finding the color manifest in any artificial medium to be more captivating or profound than that of the naturally-dyed colors produced for making carpets and textiles. Handcombed, hand-spun, and naturally-dyed wool was the product of the ingenuity of master dyers, some of whom certainly were known and lauded in Imperial court ateliers, while the majority of local specialists were unknown outside their immediate environs. To the newly interested observer of distinguished carpets, attention is often preempted by the complexities of the myriad design repertoires portrayed. On closer analysis, a sensitive observer can frequently be astonished by the profundity and the sublime manifestation of bold and striking color: hues and tonalities of extraordinary range and complexity that have been miraculously perfected throughout millennia. The presence of abrash, the often notable difference of intensity in the same color tone can be remarkable and adds a perceptible degree of depth or dimensionality to a carpet. Without question the colors were the product of purely natural substances utilized for dying. Although various different substances, common to different regions, were used for secondary colors, the principal dyestuff sources were highly coveted and often traded internationally. There was great secrecy regarding the techniques of dying, which were closely guarded. Reds and blue are the first to come to mind, madder root being the principal substance in the Orient for red and indigo for blue, both indigenous to the Middle East and India. As a light and water-fast brilliant scarlet red, cochineal was highly prized. Armenian or Polish cochineal is believed to have been used since ancient times, until the Spanish discovered a new source in the New World, and exported it from Mexico for more than 300 years, while jealously guarding its source. Before the end of the 16th century, the diffusion of cochineal had spread as far as Central Asia. For more than two centuries the cultivation of cochineal insects was exclusive to the Oaxaca region of southern Mexico and provided Spain with annual income second only to silver.
Much energy was expended by other Europeans in the attempt to find out not only where it came from but from what substanceit²⁷. Exclusively natural dyes were used in the manufacture of carpets until the middle of the 19th century when synthetic dyes were discovered.

26- See Alexander 1993.

27- See Greenfield 2005. 26

19th Century renewal and current modern developments

Ironically, the introduction of synthetic dyes to the East was fairly rapid and is often credited with being one of reasons for the decline in the quality of carpet weaving, along with the industrial revolution and the European and North American demand for commercial carpets. At present there is a gap in documented evidence between the 17th and 19th centuries that would demonstrate the continuity and evolution of carpet-weaving in the traditional “post-classical” production centers. As mentioned above, recent studies are beginning to shed light on the somewhat obscure knowledge of the goings-on of the 18th and early 19th century. It is fully documented however that at the end of the 19th century, enterprising European firms began organizing the production of Persian carpets with western capital in order to satisfy the growing demand for Oriental carpets as the new exotic decor fad. The Manchester-based Ziegler & Company, already established as an import-export firm trading in Persia, was the first to organize the production and exportation of Persian carpets to Europe. On the strength of an already established local weaving industry and the lower production costs in comparison to other weaving centers, new looms were set up in the central Persian city of Sultanabad soon after the firm was established in 1867. This marked the start of what is now referred to as the carpet revival of the late 19th century. Because of the great demand from Europe and America many other weaving centers began to flourish, including the old classical period centers of Tabriz, Kashan, Kirman, Isfahan, Shiraz and many others. The demand was so great that in the case of Tabriz the entrepreneurs took the design cartoons for the Tabrizi carpets to nearby Heriz and began to weave a more geometric version of their commercial export grade carpets in the tradition of the Heriz local weavers. A particular type of exquisitely-woven carpet from Tabriz, the so-called “Hadji Jalili” is reputed to have been woven in nearby Marand. Because there is no historical documentation to permit comparison, the term is often misused, but there are exemplars conforming to a criterion of sumptuousness that allow it to be applied. As a comparative example of truly extraordinary craftsmanship and sophistication, the carpets from the city of Kashan in central Persia labeled “Mohatashem” sometimes bear a signature or inscription and possibly a date, making the attribution authentic, unlike the mysterious and mythical “Hadji Jalili” of Tabriz. Along with Kashan and Tabriz, other traditional weaving centers like Kirman, Isfahan, Khorrasan and Herat – all of which were extremely important since the classical period flourished during the commercial revival, sometimes producing truly exceptional carpets. As in the latter half of the 19th century, over the last 20 years carpet weaving has experienced yet another renaissance. The burgeoning international demand for quality carpets with more contemporary design and color schemes has ignited an industry that encompasses not only the traditional carpet weaving regions of Central Asia, Turkey, Iran and India, but flows over into Egypt, China, Romania and other centers generally not considered to be major carpet weaving cultures. Some productions have gained a level of expertise that is truly remarkable and unquestionably have the makings of what, in decades or centuries to come, will be considered as the masterpieces of the carpet revival of the late 20th century.

Anthony Foster

A Gentleman’s Refuge